Coal Mine Drainage Prediction and Pollution Prevention in Pennsylvania |
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Coal Mine Drainage Prediction and Pollution Prevention in Pennsylvania |
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Table of Contents
Letter from the Governor
Acknowledgements
Preface
I. Chapter Summary
Page
Biographical Sketches of the Authors
II. Chapter Outline
1. Geochemistry of Coal Mine Drainage1-1 to 1-22
Arthur W. Rose and Charles A. Cravotta III
Summary 1-1
Introduction 1-1
Chemistry of Coal Mine Drainage 1-4
Production of acidity 1-6
Measurement of acidity 1-8
Factors controlling the rate of AMD generation 1-9
Bacteria 1-9
Effect of pH 1-10
Effect of pyrite surface area and crystallinity 1-10
Effect of oxygen 1-11
Effect of microenvironments 1-11
Formation of secondary minerals 1-12
Neutralization of acidity and production of alkalinity 1-13
Models for AMD Formation 1-15
Conclusions 1-18
Literature Cited 1-18
2. Groundwater Flow on the Appalachian Plateau of Pennsylvania 2-1 to 2-39
Thomas Callaghan, Gary Fleeger, Scott Barnes and Albert Dalberto
Introduction 2-1
Climate 2-1
Groundwater Flow 2-3
Hydraulic head 2-3
Static water level 2-4
Hydraulic conductivity 2-4
Effect of dip on groundwater flow 2-6
Pit floor leakage 2-6
Fractures 2-7
Joints 2-7
Stress-relief fractures 2-7
Zones of fracture concentration 2-8
Bedding-plane partings 2-8
Fault zones 2-8
Geology 2-9
Aquifer "types" of the Plateau 2-10
Semi-perched aquifers 2-12
Perched aquifers 2-12
Confined aquifers 2-12
Unconsolidated aquifers 2-13
Groundwater Flow Systems 2-13
Recharge and discharge areas 2-13
Local (shallow) groundwater flow system 2-13
Stress-relief/weathered regolith subsystem 2-14
Ridge-core subsystem 2-15
Intermediate flow system 2-15
Regional flow systems 2-16
Discussion 2-16
Identification of flow systems 2-16
Physical data 2-16
Hydrochemical data 2-17
Thermal data 2-17
Discussion 2-18
Case Studies 2-18
Case Study No. 1 – 580 Pocket Mine 2-18
Site characteristics 2-20
Shallow flow system 2-20
Weathered surface zone 2-21
Stress-relief fractures 2-21
Ridge cores 2-23
Intermediate flow system 2-23
580 Pocket site versus conceptual model 2-24
Case Study No. 2 – Kauffman Mine 2-24
Geology 2-25
Stratigraphy 2-25
Structure 2-25
Jointing 2-27
Hydrogeology 2-27
Groundwater monitoring 2-27
Groundwater flow within the weathered zone 2-28
Groundwater flow within the unweathered zone 2-29
Summary 2-32
Literature Cited 2-32
Additional (uncited) Literature 2-35
3. Hydrogeologic Characteristics of Surface-Mine Spoil 3-1 to 3-11
Jay W. Hawkins
Introduction 3-1
Characteristics of Mine Spoil Groundwater Flow Systems 3-1
Factors Influencing Hydraulic Characteristics 3-2
Lithologic controls 3-2
Mining methods and topography 3-4
Impacts of spoil age 3-5
Reported Values of Hydraulic Parameters 3-5
Hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity 3-5
Porosity 3-7
Groundwater velocity 3-8
Groundwater recharge 3-8
Summary 3-9
Literature Cited 3-10
4. Effects of Mine Drainage on Aquatic Life, Water
Uses,
and Man-made Structures 4-1 to 4-10
Jane Earle and Thomas Callaghan
Introduction 4-1
Effects of Mine Drainage and Metals on Aquatic Macroinvertibrates and Fish 4-1
pH 4-2
Metals 4-3
Summary 4-6
Water Uses and Man-Made Structures 4-6
Chemical impacts on potable and industrial water supplies 4-6
Corrosion and incrustation of wells, pipes, and other metal structures 4-7
Durability of concrete structures 4-8
Literature Cited 4-8
OVERBURDEN ANALYSIS DATA COLLECTION,
SAMPLE PREPARATION, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS
5. Planning the Overburden Analysis 5-1 to 5-9
Joseph M. Tarantino and Dennis J. Shaffer
Introduction 5-1
Purpose of OBA 5-1
Permitting tool 5-1
OBA waivers 5-1
Management tool 5-2
Information Needed to Conduct an OBA 5-2
Preparing an OBA Proposal 5-3
Areal coverage---Number of Holes per Ac (ha) 5-3
Operational considerations 5-4
Stratigraphic variation 5-4
The problem of obtaining representative samples 5-4
Sample Collection and Handling 5-5
Sample collection 5-5
Air rotary: normal circulation 5-5
Reverse circulation rotary rig 5-5
Diamond cores 5-6
Augering 5-6
Highwall sampling 5-7
Sample description (log) 5-7
Preparation of Samples 5-7
Field preparation 5-7
Compositing and laboratory preparation 5-7
Purpose of sample preparation 5-8
Conclusions 5-8
Literature Cited 5-8
6. Laboratory Methods for Acid-Base Accounting: An Update 6-1 to 6-9
Tim Kania
Introduction 6-1
Components of ABA 6-1
Paste pH 6-2
Percent Sulfur 6-2
Fizz Rating 6-4
Neutralization Potential (NP) 6-6
Other Methods of Determining Carbonate Content 6-7
Conclusions 6-8
Literature Cited 6-8
7. Kinetic (Leaching) Tests for the Prediction of Mine Drainage Quality 7-1 to 7-54
Roger J. Hornberger and Keith B.C. Brady
Introduction 7-1
Chronology of the Development of Kinetic Tests for Mine Drainage 7-2
Evaluation of Physical, Chemical and Biological Factors in Kinetic Tests 7-5
Size, shape, and structure of the kinetic test apparatus 7-12
Particle size distribution and composition of rock sample 7-12
Volume and placement of overburden samples in kinetic test apparatus 7-15
Water handling procedures 7-16
Leaching cycles 7-19
Gas handling provisions (oxygen and carbon dioxide) 7-19
Biological considerations in kinetic tests 7-22
Summary and Recommendations 7-25
Development of Standard Kinetic Test Procedures for the Prediction
of Mine Drainage Quality 7-27
Relationships Among Kinetic Tests, Static Tests, and Other Methods of
Predicting Mine Drainage Quality 7-28
Acknowledgments 7-29
Appendix: Chronology of the Development of
Kinetic Tests for Mine Drainage: 1949-1994 7-29
Early History 7-29
Regulatory induced developments 7-32
The middle years – Penn State University 7-34
The middle years – West Virginia University and related work 7-34
Kinetic test development in central and western U.S. and Canada 7-35
Comparison of test methods 1985-1994 7-37
A plethora of variations on a theme 7-38
Literature Cited 7-41
PREDICTION TECHNIQUES AND INTERPRETATIONS
8. Influence of Geology on Postmining Water Quality:
Northern Appalachain Basin 8-1 to 8-92
Keith B.C. Brady, Roger J. Hornberger and Gary Fleeger
Summary 8-1
Introduction 8-3
Pennsylvania during the Pennsylvanian Period 8-3
Pennsylvanian and Permian (?) Stratigraphy of Western Pennsylvania 8-5
Pottsville Group 8-7
Allegheny Group 8-9
Lower Allegheny 8-10
Clarion coal overburden and the Vanport Limestone 8-10
Lower Kittanning to middle Kittanning interval 8-11
Middle Kittanning to Johnstown limestone interval 8-14
Upper Allegheny 8-17
Conemaugh Group 8-18
Glenshaw Formation 8-19
Casselman Formation 8-22
Monongahela Group 8-23
Pittsburgh Formation 8-23
Pittsburgh coal to Redstone coal interval 8-24
Blue Lick coal to Sewickley coal overburden 8-25
Pittsburgh Formation limestones 8-25
Dunkard Group 8-27
Pennsylvanian Stratigraphy of Pennsylvania’s Anthracite Region 8-29
Pottsville Formation 8-30
Llewellyn Formation 8-30
Pleistocene Sediments 8-32
Geochemistry of glacial sediments 8-34
Importance of glacial sediments in mine drainage water quality 8-36
Discussion on Stratigraphy 8-37
Mineralogy of Mine Site Overburden 8-37
Pyrite, other forms of sulfur, and acid production 8-38
Chemical forms of sulfur (sulfur mineralogy) in overburden rock 8-38
Sulfide sulfur 8-38
Sulfate sulfur 8-38
Organic sulfur 8-39
Pyrite morphology 8-39
Discussion on sulfur minerals and their relation to acidic water 8-40
Formation of pyrite 8-40
Sulfur and iron 8-40
Organic carbon and its relationship to sulfur 8-40
Sedimentation rate and bioturbation (open vs. closed system) 8-42
Discussion on formation of pyrite 8-43
Alkalinity producing minerals: The carbonates 8-43
Carbonate mineralogy 8-44
Distribution of carbonates in the Pennsylvanian of western Pennsylvania 8-45
Other neutralizing minerals and processes 8-45
Geologic Controls on Overburden Mineralogy in the Appalachian Basin 8-47
Paleoclimatic influences on terrigenous rock mineralogy 8-49
Paleodepositional environmental influences on rock mineralogy 8-51
Depositional environments of carbonate minerals 8-52
Marine carbonates 8-52
Freshwater carbonates 8-54
Depositional environments of iron sulfides 8-54
Marine, brackish and freshwater environments 8-54
Vertical distribution of sulfur within a coal seam 8-57
Surface Weathering 8-59
Weathering of bedrock on the Appalachian Plateau 8-59
Weathering of glacial sediments in western Pennsylvania 8-61
Weathering in the Anthracite Region 8-63
Lithologic Factors Affecting Postmining Water Quality 8-64
Sandstone and postmining water quality 8-65
Distribution of high-sulfur rocks 8-68
Relationships Among Mineralogy, Stratigraphy, and Regional and Local
Variations in Postmining Water Chemistry 8-69
Importance of carbonates 8-69
Stratigraphic relationships to water chemistry 8-70
Dunkard Group 8-71
Monongahela Group 8-71
Conemaugh Group 8-72
Allegheny Group 8-72
Upper Allegheny 8-73
Lower Allegheny 8-73
Pottsville Group 8-75
Regional and local variations in postmining water quality 8-75
Water quality in the Bituminous Coal Region 8-76
Anthracite region water quality 8-77
Local-scale variations in water quality of the Bituminous and
Anthracite Regions 8-79
Appendix: Fossil Fauna and Paleosalinity 8-80
Acknowledgments 8-82
References Cited 8-83
9. Groundwater Chemistry from Previously Mined
Areas as a
Mine Drainage Prediction Too 9-1 to 9-21
Keith B.C. Brady
Introduction 9-1
Factors to Consider 9-2
The proposed mining is on different coals and overburden 9-3
Mining on same seam(s) but with significant differences in
stratigraphy or in amount of area disturbed 9-6
Facies relationships 9-6
Amount of cover 9-7
Increased area of disturbance 9-8
Hydrologic complications 9-8
Groundwater 9-10
Climatic influences on discharge quality 9-10
Lateral variability in water quality within a mine site 9-12
Chemistry changes along flow path 9-13
Surface water 9-15
Differences in mining practices 9-15
Surface mine vs. deep mine water quality 9-16
Mining practices 9-17
Discussion 9-19
Conclusions 9-20
Acknowledgments 9-20
Literature Cited 9-20
10. Natural Groundwater Quality from Unmined Areas
as a Mine
Drainage Quality Prediction Tool 10-1 to 10-11
Keith B.C. Brady
Introduction 10-1
Methods 10-2
Mine A: "Kauffman site," Boggs Township, Clearfield County 10-2
Mine B: Wharton Township, Fayette County 10-5
Mine C: Lower Turkeyfoot Township, Somerset County 10-6
Comparison with Other Parts of the Appalachian Plateau 10-8
Discussion 10-9
Implications and Conclusions 10-10
Acknowledgments 10-10
Literature Cited 10-10
11. Interpretation of Acid-Base Accounting 11-1 to 11-18
Eric F. Perry
Introduction 11-1
Development and Application of Acid-Base Accounting 11-1
Principles of Acid-Base Accounting Measurements 11-2
Neutralization potential (NP) 11-3
Maximum potential acidity (MPA) 11-3
Net neutralization potential (NNP) calculation 11-4
Paste pH 11-4
Metals 11-4
Analyzing and Interpreting Acid-Base Accounting 11-5
Acid-Base Accounting and Coal Mine Drainage Studies in Appalachia 11-5
Pennsylvania study 11-5
West Virginia study 11-10
Bureau of Mines study 11-10
Other mine drainage studies 11-10
An Example of Acid-Base Accounting Data Interpretation 11-11
Weathered zone 11-11
Identification of significant strata 11-11
Correlation to other drill holes 11-11
Data reduction and interpretation 11-13
Mine drainage quality 11-15
Conclusions 11-15
Literature Cited 11-16
RECLAMATION AND ACID MINE DRAINAGE
PREVENTION METHODS
12. Reclamation and Revegetation 12-1 to 12-5
Nevin Strock
Introduction 12-1
Revegetation of Coal Mined Land 12-1
Relationship of Vegetation to Mine Hydrology 12-1
Plant Species as Indicators of Mine Spoil / Overburden Chemistry 12-2
Plant Tolerance / Adaptability to Acid and Toxic Conditions 12-3
Some Other Factors Affecting Establishment of Vegetation 12-3
Topsoiling of Coal Mined Land 12-4
Topsoiling, Reclamation and Mine Hydrology 12-4
Conclusions 12-4
Literature Cited 12-4
13. Alkaline Addition 13-1 to 13-13
Michael W. Smith and Keith Brady
Introduction 13-1
Theory of Alkaline Addition 13-1
Alkaline Addition Studies 13-2
Alkaline Addition Practices 13-6
Application rates 13-6
Materials handling and placement 13-8
Alkaline materials and verification 13-9
Alkaline redistribution 13-9
Alkaline addition as a best management practice on low cover overburden 13-10
Cost comparison 13-11
Summary 13-12
Acknowledgments 13-12
References Cited 13-12
14. Special Handling Techniques in the Prevention of Acid Mine Drainage14-1 to 14-22
Eric F. Perry, Lysa Holland, Robert Evans, Joseph Schueck and David Maxwell
Introduction 14-1
Selecting a Special Handling Strategy 14-1
Geologic and Geochemical Conditions: Acid and Alkaline Materials 14-2
Hydrogeologic conditions 14-3
Operational considerations 14-5
Special Handling Techniques 14-8
Handling acid materials using segregation and isolation ("high and
dry") Techniques 14-8
Capping 14-11
Handling of acid materials using the submergence or "dark and
deep" technique 14-12
Handling of acid and alkaline materials using blending techniques
(including alkaline redistribution) 14-14
Handling alkaline material for addition and redistribution 14-15
Placement of alkaline material in mine backfills 14-15
Methods for incorporating the alkaline material into the backfill 14-16
Operational constraints involving the location of the alkaline
material 14-16
Conclusions 14-17
Appendix: Industry Experience with Mine Planning and Special Handling 14-18
Introduction 14-18
Exploration and Planning 14-18
Groundwater 14-18
Surface water 14-19
Overburden quality 14-19
Special handling implementation 14-19
Mining methods 14-19
Concurrent reclamation 14-20
Alkaline amendment (purchased) 14-20
Alkaline amendment (within overburden spoils) 14-20
Alkaline redistribution 14-20
Literature Cited 14-21
15. Bactericidal Control of Acidic Drainage 15-1 to 15-6
Robert L.P. Kleinmann
Introduction 15-1
Use of Anionic Surfactants 15-2
Surfactant solutions 15-2
Slow-release formulations 15-3
Procedural Recommendations 15-3
Ongoing Research 15-4
Summary 15-5
Literature Cited 15-5
16. Water Management Techniques on Surface Mining Sites 16-1 to 16-11
Michael Gardner
Introduction 16-1
Management of Surface Water 16-2
Erosion and sedimentation controls 16-2
Diversion ditches 16-2
Collection ditches 16-2
Sedimentation and treatment ponds 16-2
Control of surface water infiltration 16-2
Speed of reclamation 16-3
Groundwater Management 16-3
Highwall drains 16-3
Design and installation of highwall drains 16-4
The pit floor 16-6
Water Management Case Studies 16-6
Case study 1 16-6
Case study 2 16-7
Case study 3 16-9
Summary 16-10
Literature Cited 16-10
17. Remining 17-1 to 17-6
Jay W. Hawkins
Introduction 17-1
Historical Impacts of Remining 17-1
Remining Techniques 17-3
Impact of Discharge Flow on Contaminant Loading 17-3
Discharge Flow Rate Reduction 17-4
Proven Track Record and Experience-Based Rules-of-Thumb 17-5
Recommendations 17-6
Literature Cited 17-6
SYNTHESIS
18. Application of the Principles of Postmining Water Quality Prediction 18-1 to 18-12
Tim Kania
Introduction 18-1
Complicating Factors 18-2
Risk Assessment 18-2
The Best Tool 18-3
Key Principles from Previous Chapters 18-3
Examples of Predictive Decisions 18-5
Site 1 18-6
Site 2 18-7
Site 3 18-9
Site 4 18-10
Conclusions 18-11
Acknowledgments 18-12
Literature Cited 18-12
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